(Hall Case study: The war in Iraq 2021)
In 2002, The New York Times (NYT) published a report claiming Iraq was developing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). The report was based on US intelligence sources and used as justification for the invasion of Iraq in 2003 (Hall, 2021). This object perfectly encapsulates how reputation and emotional bias can blind the public on how to truly measure the reliability of knowledge and give power to questionable knowledge. The reputation of the NYT has led them to gain the trust of its millions of readers (The New York Times Company, 2022). The organization has influence over people, as they gained their daily attention through common political values and quality reporting. This reputation leaves readers more prone to believing false information. The NYT themselves stated that “The reporting on Iraq was flawed and relied too heavily and credulously on now-suspect sources of WMD intelligence” (Cozens, 2004).
This lack of independently verified, objective information was not questioned by the American public. A 2003 survey revealed that, a staggering 90% of US citizens believed Iraq had the facilities to create WMDs before the war (Washington Post, 2003). This report plays a large role in this statistic, as many government representatives have used the story as key evidence in speeches and interviews, such as President Bush and Vice-president Cheney (Hall, 2021), displaying how the NYT's reputation and biases can have a deeper impact on establishing reliability than credible evidence.
Published only a year after the brutal 9/11 attacks, the US public felt pain, vulnerability and outrage. This emotional trauma led Americans susceptible to unreliable information. A survey further found that 69% of Americans believed Saddam Hussein was involved in the 9/11 attack, as well as 82% believed Saddam assisted Osama bin Laden (Washington Post, 2003). Both were false. However, this false belief, led by confusion, lies, and emotion, made it much easier for Americans to believe, the knowledge that Iraq possessed WMDs, and ultimately led them to support the invasion of Iraq. Americans were not in a position to think rationally, and news organizations like the NYT and certain politicians used this emotional trauma to spread their own version of the truth, ignoring all ethics and responsibilities.
This lack of independently verified, objective information was not questioned by the American public. A 2003 survey revealed that, a staggering 90% of US citizens believed Iraq had the facilities to create WMDs before the war (Washington Post, 2003). This report plays a large role in this statistic, as many government representatives have used the story as key evidence in speeches and interviews, such as President Bush and Vice-president Cheney (Hall, 2021), displaying how the NYT's reputation and biases can have a deeper impact on establishing reliability than credible evidence.
Published only a year after the brutal 9/11 attacks, the US public felt pain, vulnerability and outrage. This emotional trauma led Americans susceptible to unreliable information. A survey further found that 69% of Americans believed Saddam Hussein was involved in the 9/11 attack, as well as 82% believed Saddam assisted Osama bin Laden (Washington Post, 2003). Both were false. However, this false belief, led by confusion, lies, and emotion, made it much easier for Americans to believe, the knowledge that Iraq possessed WMDs, and ultimately led them to support the invasion of Iraq. Americans were not in a position to think rationally, and news organizations like the NYT and certain politicians used this emotional trauma to spread their own version of the truth, ignoring all ethics and responsibilities.
(Smith, 'There's nowhere to Hide': North Korea Resumes anti-US propaganda depicting graphic violence, 2022)
The reliability of knowledge is deeply affected by the context, culture, and power in which it is presented. This North Korean (NK) propaganda poster embodies this notion. NK has a highly concentrated and authoritarian political system, that restricts access to alternative narratives and knowledge (Freedom house, 2022). This raises concerns about the objectivity of all knowledge and media published by the state, including this poster. The population's interpretation of the knowledge presented in the poster is shaped by this political and cultural context.
The poster quotes “Let’s knock the American emperor down with a single blow” depicting a muscular blood-red fist, crushing gray lifeless US soldiers on top of a cracked US flag (Smith, 2022). This aims to reinforce the country's perspective towards the US and their rivalry. This hostility has been instilled in the population from a young age in schools and museums. It stems from their perspective of the Korean War, (Reinhart, 2019). This constant reinforcement nurtured a deep resentment of the US in the population. Justifying how the circumstances and environment in which you consume knowledge can deeply affect the way you perceive and trust it.
Furthermore, power dynamics are significant in determining the reliability of knowledge. In this case, the NK government holds the power to control and manipulate information to maintain its authority and suppress dissent. This poster shows the belief of the NK government, that revenge is due against the US for the violence they committed during the Korean War. The position or status of whom controls this knowledge is directly related to how reliable and trustworthy the knowledge is to the public. NK citizens' would be justified by the idea of the US as the enemy, while only 14% of US citizens believe NK is the US’s biggest threat (Reinhart, 2019). This object perfectly illustrates the link between how a person's environmental context directly affects the reliability of the knowledge they consume, the people who hold the power over knowledge can deeply affect their beliefs and perspective on what knowledge is true or not.
The poster quotes “Let’s knock the American emperor down with a single blow” depicting a muscular blood-red fist, crushing gray lifeless US soldiers on top of a cracked US flag (Smith, 2022). This aims to reinforce the country's perspective towards the US and their rivalry. This hostility has been instilled in the population from a young age in schools and museums. It stems from their perspective of the Korean War, (Reinhart, 2019). This constant reinforcement nurtured a deep resentment of the US in the population. Justifying how the circumstances and environment in which you consume knowledge can deeply affect the way you perceive and trust it.
Furthermore, power dynamics are significant in determining the reliability of knowledge. In this case, the NK government holds the power to control and manipulate information to maintain its authority and suppress dissent. This poster shows the belief of the NK government, that revenge is due against the US for the violence they committed during the Korean War. The position or status of whom controls this knowledge is directly related to how reliable and trustworthy the knowledge is to the public. NK citizens' would be justified by the idea of the US as the enemy, while only 14% of US citizens believe NK is the US’s biggest threat (Reinhart, 2019). This object perfectly illustrates the link between how a person's environmental context directly affects the reliability of the knowledge they consume, the people who hold the power over knowledge can deeply affect their beliefs and perspective on what knowledge is true or not.
(Annual Forbes 400 Ranking Of The Richest Americans, 2014)
The Silicon Valley startup, Theranos, was supposed to revolutionize blood testing. Theranos and its founder Elizabeth Holmes are prime examples of how image and perception can create a false sense of reliability and responsibility. By 2014 the company was worth 9 billion dollars, which landed her on the 2014 Forbes Magazine cover for the 400 Americans (Aubrey, 2023). However, the company's claim of fast, accurate blood testing was justified by fraudulent tests and hopeless technology (Belluz, 2015).
Holmes' image played a crucial role in convincing investors and the public that her claims were reliable. Many people fell prey to the idea of a young, brilliant Stanford dropout, dressed in cliché black turtlenecks, who would revolutionize the medical industry. Forbes titled the billionaire “...the next Steve Jobs” (Altraide, 2019). Additionally, Theranos was able to attract high-profile board members, namely US senators. This innovative and wealthy reputation publicly strengthened the company's legitimacy and reliability. It falsely proved that there was some validity in the knowledge they claimed.
Holmes continued to be featured in magazines, interviews, and speeches where she portrayed herself as a visionary and charismatic leader, personality traits that inspire trust and reliability in a world that holds public identity to a high degree. Holmes heavily emphasized her scientific and engineering expertise, citing her background in chemical engineering along with her experience developing Theranos technology. However, the reality was far from this idealized image. Theranos had deceived investors with fake demonstrations, misleading marketing, and extreme secrecy of test results (Altraide, 2019).
The lack of transparency, responsibility, and evidence exposed the dangers of blindly trusting charismatic leaders. Perception has a potent impact on reliability, which is why knowledge should always be questioned (Aubrey, 2023).
Works Cited:
Altraide, Dagogo. “Theranos – Silicon Valley's Greatest Disaster.” YouTube, YouTube, 1 Mar. 2019,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3CccfnRpPtM. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Aubrey, Justin. “The Crimes of Elizabeth Holmes | A 10 Billion Dollar Fraud.” Youtube, 17 Feb. 2023,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3zV5YEjadUE&ab_channel=jaubrey. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Belluz, Julia. “The Theranos Controversy,  ;Explained.” Vox, Vox, 20 Oct. 2015,
https://www.vox.com/2015/10/20/9576501/theranos-elizabeth-holmes. Last accessed 20 April 2023
“The Connection between Iraq and 9/11.” Youtube, Aljazeera, 7 Sept. 2011,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RaUWpY5X3t8&ab_channel=AlJazeeraEnglish. Last accessed 17 April 2023
"The New York Times Company Reports Third-Quarter 2022 Results" (PDF). The New York Times Company. 2022 https://nytco-assets.nytimes.com/2022/11/NYT-Press-Release-Q3-2022-Final-nM7GzWGr.pdf, Last accessed January 8, 2023.
Cozens, Claire. “New York Times: We Were Wrong on Iraq.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 26 May 2004, https://www.theguardian.com/media/2004/may/26/pressandpublishing.usnews. Last accessed 20 April 2023
“Elizabeth Holmes, and the Story of Theranos.” The Economic Times, 11 Sept. 2021, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/newsletters/ettech-unwrapped/blood-money-the-story-of-theranos/articleshow/86109943.cms?from=mdr. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Farah, Lynn. “Why Disgraced Billionaire Elizabeth Holmes Reinvented Her Style.” South China Morning Post, 4 Jan. 2022, https://www.scmp.com/magazines/style/celebrity/article/3162090/why-elizabeth-holmes-reinvented-her-style-her-steve-jobs. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Hall, Jane. “Case Study: The War in Iraq.” Sage Publications Inc, 27 Aug. 2021, https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/case-study-the-war-in-iraq. Last accessed 17 April 2023
“How Elizabeth Holmes' Rhetoric Changed over Time - Youtube.” Youtube, Guardian, 4 Jan. 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uLwtxDxWxUM. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Leffler, Melvyn P. “Bush, 9/11, and the Roots of the Iraq War.” Foreign Affairs, 23 Mar. 2023, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/bush-911-and-roots-iraq-war. Last accessed 17 April 2023
Nadeem, Reem. “A Look Back at How Fear and False Beliefs Bolstered U.S. Public Support for War in Iraq.” Pew Research Center - U.S. Politics & Policy, Pew Research Center, 14 Mar. 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2023/03/14/a-look-back-at-how-fear-and-false-beliefs-bolstered-u-s-public-support-for-war-in-iraq/. Last accessed 17 April 2023
Newport, Frank. “Americans Still Think Iraq Had Weapons of Mass Destruction Before War.” Gallup.com, Gallup, 16 June 2003, https://news.gallup.com/poll/8623/americans-still-think-iraq-had-weapons-mass-destruction-before-war.aspx. Last accessed 17 April 2023
“North Korea: Freedom in the World 2022 Country Report.” Freedom House, 2022, freedomhouse.org/country/north-korea/freedom-world/2022. Last accessed 29 May, 2023
Reinhart, RJ. “Far Fewer Americans See North Korea as Greatest U.S. Enemy.” Gallup.com, Gallup, 27 Feb. 2019, https://news.gallup.com/poll/247151/far-fewer-americans-north-korea-greatest-enemy.aspx.
Riedel, Bruce. “9/11 And Iraq: The Making of a Tragedy.” \Brookings, Brookings, 9 Mar. 2022, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2021/09/17/9-11-and-iraq-the-making-of-a-tragedy/. Scott, Adriana. “New York Times Reports WMD Found in Iraq - US News.” US News, 16 Oct.
2014,https://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2014/10/16/new-york-times-reports-wmd-found-in-iraq. Last accessed 18 April 2023
Smith, Nicola. “'There's Nowhere to Hide': North Korea Resumes Anti-US Propaganda Depicting Graphic Violence.” The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, 11 Nov. 2022, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2022/11/11/north-korea-resumes-anti-us-propaganda-depicting-graphic-violence/. Last accessed 18 April 2023
Suarez, Ray. “The New York Times WMD Coverage.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 26 May 2004, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/the-new-york-times-wmd-coverage. Last accessed 17 April 2023.
“Washington Post Poll: Saddam Hussein and the Sept. 11 Attacks.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 6 Sept. 2003, https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/polls/vault/stories/data082303.html
no_nav=true&pwapi_token=eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJleHAiOjE2MzE0NTE0NTksIm5iZiI6MTYzMTM2NTA1OSwicmVxdWVzdGlkIjoiREQzRDdDNDAtRjkzRC00OERBLTk0RDQtNDAyNDg5RTAxOEZBIiwiaWF0IjoxNjMxMzY1MDU5LCJ1cmwiOiJ3d3cud2FzaGluZ3RvbnBvc3QuY29tXC93cC1zcnZcL3BvbGl0aWNzXC9wb2xsc1wvdmF1bHRcL3N0b3JpZXNcL2RhdGEwODIzMDMuaHRtIiwiaXNzIjoiaU9TIn0.UUyQumuMHZzfoW53TrFUNDEkb6rYsYbVCKA-4BITIg4. Last accessed 18 April 2023
Holmes' image played a crucial role in convincing investors and the public that her claims were reliable. Many people fell prey to the idea of a young, brilliant Stanford dropout, dressed in cliché black turtlenecks, who would revolutionize the medical industry. Forbes titled the billionaire “...the next Steve Jobs” (Altraide, 2019). Additionally, Theranos was able to attract high-profile board members, namely US senators. This innovative and wealthy reputation publicly strengthened the company's legitimacy and reliability. It falsely proved that there was some validity in the knowledge they claimed.
Holmes continued to be featured in magazines, interviews, and speeches where she portrayed herself as a visionary and charismatic leader, personality traits that inspire trust and reliability in a world that holds public identity to a high degree. Holmes heavily emphasized her scientific and engineering expertise, citing her background in chemical engineering along with her experience developing Theranos technology. However, the reality was far from this idealized image. Theranos had deceived investors with fake demonstrations, misleading marketing, and extreme secrecy of test results (Altraide, 2019).
The lack of transparency, responsibility, and evidence exposed the dangers of blindly trusting charismatic leaders. Perception has a potent impact on reliability, which is why knowledge should always be questioned (Aubrey, 2023).
Works Cited:
Altraide, Dagogo. “Theranos – Silicon Valley's Greatest Disaster.” YouTube, YouTube, 1 Mar. 2019,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3CccfnRpPtM. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Aubrey, Justin. “The Crimes of Elizabeth Holmes | A 10 Billion Dollar Fraud.” Youtube, 17 Feb. 2023,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3zV5YEjadUE&ab_channel=jaubrey. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Belluz, Julia. “The Theranos Controversy,  ;Explained.” Vox, Vox, 20 Oct. 2015,
https://www.vox.com/2015/10/20/9576501/theranos-elizabeth-holmes. Last accessed 20 April 2023
“The Connection between Iraq and 9/11.” Youtube, Aljazeera, 7 Sept. 2011,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RaUWpY5X3t8&ab_channel=AlJazeeraEnglish. Last accessed 17 April 2023
"The New York Times Company Reports Third-Quarter 2022 Results" (PDF). The New York Times Company. 2022 https://nytco-assets.nytimes.com/2022/11/NYT-Press-Release-Q3-2022-Final-nM7GzWGr.pdf, Last accessed January 8, 2023.
Cozens, Claire. “New York Times: We Were Wrong on Iraq.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 26 May 2004, https://www.theguardian.com/media/2004/may/26/pressandpublishing.usnews. Last accessed 20 April 2023
“Elizabeth Holmes, and the Story of Theranos.” The Economic Times, 11 Sept. 2021, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/newsletters/ettech-unwrapped/blood-money-the-story-of-theranos/articleshow/86109943.cms?from=mdr. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Farah, Lynn. “Why Disgraced Billionaire Elizabeth Holmes Reinvented Her Style.” South China Morning Post, 4 Jan. 2022, https://www.scmp.com/magazines/style/celebrity/article/3162090/why-elizabeth-holmes-reinvented-her-style-her-steve-jobs. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Hall, Jane. “Case Study: The War in Iraq.” Sage Publications Inc, 27 Aug. 2021, https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/case-study-the-war-in-iraq. Last accessed 17 April 2023
“How Elizabeth Holmes' Rhetoric Changed over Time - Youtube.” Youtube, Guardian, 4 Jan. 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uLwtxDxWxUM. Last accessed 20 April 2023
Leffler, Melvyn P. “Bush, 9/11, and the Roots of the Iraq War.” Foreign Affairs, 23 Mar. 2023, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/bush-911-and-roots-iraq-war. Last accessed 17 April 2023
Nadeem, Reem. “A Look Back at How Fear and False Beliefs Bolstered U.S. Public Support for War in Iraq.” Pew Research Center - U.S. Politics & Policy, Pew Research Center, 14 Mar. 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2023/03/14/a-look-back-at-how-fear-and-false-beliefs-bolstered-u-s-public-support-for-war-in-iraq/. Last accessed 17 April 2023
Newport, Frank. “Americans Still Think Iraq Had Weapons of Mass Destruction Before War.” Gallup.com, Gallup, 16 June 2003, https://news.gallup.com/poll/8623/americans-still-think-iraq-had-weapons-mass-destruction-before-war.aspx. Last accessed 17 April 2023
“North Korea: Freedom in the World 2022 Country Report.” Freedom House, 2022, freedomhouse.org/country/north-korea/freedom-world/2022. Last accessed 29 May, 2023
Reinhart, RJ. “Far Fewer Americans See North Korea as Greatest U.S. Enemy.” Gallup.com, Gallup, 27 Feb. 2019, https://news.gallup.com/poll/247151/far-fewer-americans-north-korea-greatest-enemy.aspx.
Riedel, Bruce. “9/11 And Iraq: The Making of a Tragedy.” \Brookings, Brookings, 9 Mar. 2022, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2021/09/17/9-11-and-iraq-the-making-of-a-tragedy/. Scott, Adriana. “New York Times Reports WMD Found in Iraq - US News.” US News, 16 Oct.
2014,https://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2014/10/16/new-york-times-reports-wmd-found-in-iraq. Last accessed 18 April 2023
Smith, Nicola. “'There's Nowhere to Hide': North Korea Resumes Anti-US Propaganda Depicting Graphic Violence.” The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, 11 Nov. 2022, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2022/11/11/north-korea-resumes-anti-us-propaganda-depicting-graphic-violence/. Last accessed 18 April 2023
Suarez, Ray. “The New York Times WMD Coverage.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 26 May 2004, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/the-new-york-times-wmd-coverage. Last accessed 17 April 2023.
“Washington Post Poll: Saddam Hussein and the Sept. 11 Attacks.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 6 Sept. 2003, https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/polls/vault/stories/data082303.html
no_nav=true&pwapi_token=eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJleHAiOjE2MzE0NTE0NTksIm5iZiI6MTYzMTM2NTA1OSwicmVxdWVzdGlkIjoiREQzRDdDNDAtRjkzRC00OERBLTk0RDQtNDAyNDg5RTAxOEZBIiwiaWF0IjoxNjMxMzY1MDU5LCJ1cmwiOiJ3d3cud2FzaGluZ3RvbnBvc3QuY29tXC93cC1zcnZcL3BvbGl0aWNzXC9wb2xsc1wvdmF1bHRcL3N0b3JpZXNcL2RhdGEwODIzMDMuaHRtIiwiaXNzIjoiaU9TIn0.UUyQumuMHZzfoW53TrFUNDEkb6rYsYbVCKA-4BITIg4. Last accessed 18 April 2023