Topic: Diminishing state-backed disinformation campaigns and censorship in media
Chair: Robin Gripon
Introduction
State-backed disinformation campaigns and censorship in media are complex issues that have significant implications in the realm of information security and digital communication. Disinformation, defined as the deliberate dissemination of false or misleading information, can be spread through various mediums including the Internet, social media platforms, and messaging apps. These campaigns can be orchestrated by state actors to manipulate public opinion, influence elections, and interfere in the internal affairs of other countries.
Censorship in media, on the other hand, refers to the suppression or manipulation of information by state or non-state actors. This can take the form of blocking websites, shutting down news outlets, and arresting journalists. These practices have commonly been used by state actors to combat the flow of information that may harm them. The use of censorship can have a significant impact on the free flow of information and can be employed as a tool for the control and suppression of dissent.
These issues can have real-world consequences such as undermining the democratic process, eroding trust in institutions, and spreading misinformation. In recent years, state-backed disinformation campaigns have been observed in various political contexts such as elections and international conflicts. Additionally, censorship in media has been observed in countries with authoritarian governments where the suppression of free speech and the press is used to maintain control.
Both disinformation campaigns and censorship in media have significant implications for information security, digital communication, and human rights. Additionally, there is a need for international collaboration and the development of robust legal frameworks to address these issues.
Definition of Key Terms
Disinformation: The UN has defined disinformation as "deliberately false or misleading information that is spread with the intent to deceive and mislead audiences, either for the purposes of causing harm or for political, personal or financial gain."
Misinformation: The UN has defined Misinformation as "unintentionally false or misleading information that is spread without the intent to deceive or mislead audiences."
Censorship: the suppression or prohibition of any parts of books, films, news, etc. that are considered obscene, politically unacceptable, or a threat to security.
Media freedom: In accordance with the UN, it has recognized the importance of media freedom as a fundamental human right and has called for the protection of journalists and their ability to report freely and without fear of retaliation.
Media Control: the manipulation or regulation of the media by a government or other powerful entity in order to shape public opinion or prevent the dissemination of certain information.
Propaganda :the spreading of information or ideas to promote a particular cause or ideology, often in a misleading or biased manner.
Background Information
Current Situation of disinformation campaigns and censorship in the G7 countries
Disinformation campaigns and censorship have become increasingly common in the G7 countries due to the ease of spreading information through social media platforms and the internet. These tactics are often used by governments or other actors to manipulate public opinion, undermine trust in institutions, and sow discord. For example, some countries have been accused of using bots and fake social media accounts to spread false narratives and influence political outcomes in other countries. In response to these challenges, the G7 members have taken steps to combat disinformation and promote freedom in media. At the 2021 summit, leaders agreed to work together to support independent media, protect journalists, and counter "state-driven censorship." This includes supporting organizations that promote media literacy and fact-checking, investing in technology to detect and counter disinformation, and collaborating with social media companies to combat harmful content. However, addressing the problem of disinformation and censorship remains a complex issue that requires a delicate balance between protecting free speech and preventing the spread of harmful content. Some critics argue that efforts to combat disinformation could be used to stifle legitimate speech or limit the ability of journalists to report on controversial topics. Others argue that more needs to be done to hold social media companies accountable for the content that is shared on their platforms. Moreover, journalists and media workers continue to face threats and harassment, with many facing physical violence, arrest, or imprisonment for their reporting. This emphasizes the need for continued efforts to protect the freedom of press and ensure that journalists can report on important issues without fear of retaliation.
However, the G7 members may have made important commitments to address disinformation and censorship, yet there is still much work to be done to protect free speech and promote media freedom. This requires ongoing collaboration, investment, and innovation to address these challenges and ensure that journalists and media workers can operate freely and safely in a rapid altering information landscape.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
The 2022 World Press Freedom IndexWith the use of the WPFI created by Reporters Without Borders, it is possible to track the ranks of 180 countries and territories around the world by their perceived levels of censorship and disinformation. The results are given on a scale of 0 (highly censored) to 100 (highly free). Each country’s score is a combination of 2 data sources, drawn from a quantitative tally of abuses and an analysis of the situation. These data sources are collected through surveys of specialists and relatable institutions.
[85 - 100 points] good (green)
[70 - 85 points] satisfactory (yellow)
[55 - 70 points] problematic (light orange)
[40 - 55 points] difficult (dark orange)
[0 - 40 points] very serious (dark red)
The 10 lowest-scoring countries are
10. Syria (28.94) 5. Myanmar (25.03)
9. Iraq (28.59) 4. Turkmenistan (25.01)
8. Cuba (27.32) 3. Iran (23.22)
7. Vietnam (26.11) 2. Eritrea (19.62)
6. China (25.17) 1.iNorth Korea (13.92)
Timeline and the Growth of Disinformation and Censorship
1914-1918 – World War 1: World War I, propaganda played a crucial part in the recruitment effort, appealing to nationalism and patriotism.
1917 – The Russian Revolution: Russian Revolution-era propaganda emerges; one strategy involved using the Russian rail network to target ‘large audiences’ with catchy slogans and punchy colors.
1933 – Rise of Nazism: Joseph Goebbels established the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda during the rise of Nazism. The ministry was utilized to spread Nazi messages of hatred and incite violence against Jews using various mediums, including theater and the press.
1939-1945 – World War II: According to Edward Herzstein's book, "The War that Hitler Won" (1978), the Nazi propaganda campaign was the most infamous propaganda campaign in history. The propaganda was so effective that it demonized and persecuted Jews, leading to atrocities committed with popular support. Regrettably, Holocaust denialism persists in the 21st century.
1955-1975 – The Vietnam War: Propaganda played a significant role during the Vietnam War. The US government engaged in a propaganda campaign known as the “Optimism Campaign” to bolster public support for the war effort. The campaign employed the “domino theory” to create fear in the American public and suppress opposition to the war. The theory posited that if one country came under communist influence or control, its neighboring countries would soon follow. The US briefings on the war, staged at the end of every day at a Saigon hotel, were referred to as the “Five O’clock Follies”. While the North Vietnamese government also engaged in propaganda, the US propaganda efforts were criticized for their dishonesty and the false optimism they conveyed to the American people.
1947-1991 – The Cold War: Both the United States and the Soviet Union utilized various propaganda tactics to win over the hearts and minds of people around the world. The US government used propaganda to promote capitalism and democracy, while demonizing communism and the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union engaged in a campaign to promote communism as the superior political and economic system. Disinformation was also used by both sides to mislead the public and manipulate international events. For instance, the US government propagated the false belief that the Soviet Union was behind the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, while the Soviet Union spread false information about US involvement in the AIDS epidemic.
2003-2011 – The Iraq War: Leading up to the 2003 US-led coalition invasion of Iraq, The New York Times published a series of articles that included an account of a camp where “biological weapons were produced” that was never independently verified. Journalist Judith Miller’s articles containing misinformation about weapons of mass destruction were among those that had the “greatest consequences for America”, and were cited by Bush administration officials as one of the reasons for the war with Iraq. It has been argued that The New York Times presented the notion of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction as fact, and this episode became known as ‘Weapons of Mass Distraction’. Additionally, Saddam Hussein’s Information Minister during the war, Muhammed Saeed al-Sahhaf, employed propaganda tactics that were so outrageous that he was treated like a parody and became known as ‘Comical Ali’ or ‘Baghdad Bob’ by Western media.
2011 – Syrian Civil War: An information war was fought alongside the armed hostilities, with both sides using social media and other digital channels to spread misinformation in an attempt to discredit their adversaries. The resulting "information chaos" was described by a spokesperson for the International Committee of the Red Cross in Syria. In response to an Amnesty International report in 2017 that accused his government of a "calculated campaign of extrajudicial execution" in a Syrian prison, President Bashar Assad claimed that "we are living in a fake news era." He also dismissed reports of a chemical attack that killed 89 people in the same year as "100 percent fabrications," although forensic reporting by The New York Times fact-checked and refuted his claim.
2016 - US Elections: During the 2016 US presidential election, there was significant misinformation and disinformation spread through social media and other digital channels, largely attributed to Russian interference. This included the creation of fake social media accounts, spreading false stories, and hacking into email accounts. The goal was to sow discord, create confusion, and influence the election outcome in favor of then-candidate Donald Trump. The misinformation campaign targeted both candidates, but particularly Hillary Clinton, with false stories about her health and involvement in scandals. A particular story involved PizzaGate, a conspiracy theory that falsely claimed a child sex ring was being run out of a Washington, D.C. pizza restaurant with links to the Democratic Party, gained traction and led to a man firing a rifle inside a pizza restaurant in December 2016.
2016 - Brexit: The Brexit vote was plagued by misinformation and disinformation. False claims were made about the amount of money the UK paid to the European Union, as well as about the potential benefits and drawbacks of leaving the EU. Misleading and inaccurate stories were spread on social media, including claims that the EU was responsible for the UK's immigration problems and that leaving the EU would result in a large increase in funding for the National Health Service (NHS). In addition, there were allegations of foreign interference in the Brexit vote, with concerns raised about the role of Russian-linked social media accounts in spreading disinformation.
2016 - Philippines: After the 2016 Philippine election, Rappler.com utilized investigative journalism techniques to combat State-backed disinformation campaigns. The website employed big data analysis, fact-checking, and the exposure of deceitful social media content to uncover 'sock-puppet' networks. Despite their efforts, CEO and Editor-in-Chief Maria Ressa and many of her colleagues have been subject to relentless online harassment, which has been attributed to the State.
2016 - Facebook announces it will flag “Fake News”: Initially, Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg denied accusations of facilitating the spread of disinformation during the US election. However, after facing criticism, the company announced that it would collaborate with fact-checkers to combat 'fake news' on the site, and allow users to report hoaxes and flag disputed stories. Later, Facebook withdrew news from its 'newsfeed' after experiments indicated that its adjustments could increase the amplification of 'fake news.'
2016 - Colombian Hacker reveals he interfered with Latin American elections: Columbian Hacker Andres Sepulveda revealed to Newsweek that he had interfered with presidential elections in several Latin American countries from 2006 to 2014. Sepulveda claimed that he had led a team of hackers to steal campaign strategies, manipulate social media, and installed spyware in opposition offices to disrupt and influence the outcome of the election. He specifically mentioned the 2012 Mexican presidential election, where his team created false waves of enthusiasm for certain candidates. Sepuvelda was sentenced to 10 years in Colombian prison for hacking related charges in 2014.
2016 - US President Donald Trump popularizes the phrase “Fake News”: The president accused his journalistic critics of spreading false information, starting with CNN. This term was later used by other world leaders to attack journalists and news organizations, spreading its use globally as a tool for discrediting media.
2017 - National Elections in France and Germany: During the French elections, an Oxford University study found that up to a quarter of the political stories shared on Twitter in France were based on misinformation. To counteract this, 37 news organizations and technology partners launched CrossCheck, a collaborative initiative to verify and debunk fake news stories leading up to the election. Meanwhile, the German election campaign remained largely unaffected by fake news, with the German parliament passing a law in June 2017 that imposed fines of more than $50 million on social media companies that fail to remove illegal content promptly.
2018 - Indictment of the 2016 US elections: The indictment of individuals who influenced the 2016 US election using disinformation was a significant moment in American political history. The indictment, which was brought by the Department of Justice, accused several individuals of participating in a coordinated effort to interfere in the election through the use of social media platforms and other digital means. The individuals were alleged to have created and disseminated false information, divisive content, and propaganda in an attempt to sway public opinion and influence the outcome of the election. This indictment highlighted the growing concern over the use of disinformation in modern politics and the need for greater awareness and regulation of online content. The investigation into the influence of disinformation in the 2016 election continues to have far-reaching consequences and serves as a stark reminder of the importance of protecting the integrity of democratic elections.
2018 - European Union Report on “Fake News”: In the latter part of 2017, the European Union established an esteemed group of experts to investigate the problem of 'fake news' and online disinformation. The group eventually released a report in early 2018, which proposed several remedies for the issue at hand. However, the report refrained from suggesting state regulation as a possible solution. The report's recommendations included the promotion of transparency in online news and its distribution, an increase in media and information literacy to counter disinformation, the provision of tools to empower users and journalists to confront disinformation and promote a constructive relationship with rapidly-evolving information technologies, measures to protect the diversity and longevity of the European news media ecosystem, and the continuation of research efforts.
2020-2023 Covid-19 effect on Disinformation: The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a significant rise in the spread of disinformation and misinformation. According to a study by the Reuters Institute, false or misleading information about COVID-19 was present in 40 out of 225 fact-checks conducted between January and April 2020. Social media platforms have played a significant role in amplifying the spread of COVID-19 misinformation and disinformation. A study by the University of Oxford found that Facebook and Twitter were the most commonly used platforms for spreading COVID-19-related misinformation.The spread of COVID-19 misinformation and disinformation has had real-world consequences. A study published in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene found that exposure to COVID-19 misinformation was associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in behaviors that increase the risk of infection, such as not wearing a mask or avoiding social distancing. In addition, false information about COVID-19 has led some people to refuse to follow public health guidelines or get vaccinated, contributing to increased illness and death. A study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that counties with lower vaccination rates had higher COVID-19 incidence and mortality rates.
Relevant UN Treaties and Resolutions
Resolution 76/227: Countering disinformation for the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms UN Resolution 76/227 aims to address the negative impact of disinformation on human rights and fundamental freedoms. The resolution recognizes the importance of freedom of expression and access to information, while emphasizing the need for accurate and reliable information. It calls on states to develop and implement effective measures to counter disinformation, including through media literacy, independent journalism, and fact-checking mechanisms. The resolution also calls for international cooperation in countering disinformation and encourages the UN and other organizations to work together to promote the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the digital age.
General Assembly Resolution A/C.3/74/L.45/Rev.1: The safety of journalists and the issue of impunity The UN General Assembly resolution from the Seventy-fourth session on "The safety of journalists and the issue of impunity" recognizes the importance of ensuring the safety of journalists, and the need to protect them from violence, threats, and attacks. The resolution also emphasizes the need to end impunity for those who commit crimes against journalists and media workers. It calls on member states to investigate and prosecute all cases of violence against journalists, and to provide adequate protection for them. Additionally, the resolution encourages member states to take steps to promote media freedom, ensure access to information, and support the independence of media institutions. Overall, this resolution aims to strengthen the protection of journalists and safeguard their fundamental role in promoting transparency, accountability, and democracy.
GA Forty-Fourth session Resolution: Freedom of opinion and expressionThe United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution on "Freedom of Opinion and Expression" during its forty-fourth session. The resolution emphasized the importance of freedom of expression and the right to hold opinions without interference, which are fundamental human rights enshrined in international law. The resolution also called on all governments to ensure that these rights are respected, protected, and fulfilled, regardless of the medium used to express them. The resolution recognized the role of the media in promoting these rights and called on states to create a conducive environment for the media to operate freely and safely. The resolution also recognized the need to combat hate speech and incitement to violence, while respecting the principles of non-discrimination and free speech. Overall, the resolution emphasized the vital importance of freedom of opinion and expression in promoting democracy, human rights, and social progress.
Possible Solutions
Required DisclaimersTo address the issue of disinformation, one solution could involve mandating disclaimers to be attached to content shared on online platforms, such as social media. These disclaimers would inform readers that the content they are viewing has not been verified for accuracy and may contain false or misleading information.
Platform Liability Another possible solution could involve holding online platforms accountable for the dissemination of disinformation. This could include making platforms responsible for content that is found to be false or misleading and requiring them to take proactive measures to identify and remove such content.
Regulatory Bodies To combat disinformation and censorship, the establishment of regulatory bodies may be necessary. These bodies could be tasked with investigating reports of disinformation and taking appropriate action against those found to be engaging in such activities.
Transparency RequirementsOnline platforms could be required to be more transparent about their content moderation policies and decision-making processes. This could include disclosing the specific criteria used to identify and remove content that is found to be false or misleading.
Educational ProgramsEducational programs could be developed to teach individuals how to identify and avoid disinformation. These programs could be aimed at schools, universities, and other educational institutions, as well as the general public, and could equip individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary to evaluate the accuracy of information they encounter online.
Bibliography
“32nd Session of the Human Rights Council (13 June to 1 July and 8 July 2016).” OHCHR, 2016, https://previous.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session32/Pages/ResDecStat.aspx.
“Big Data for Development and Humanitarian Action.” UN Global Pulse, 4 Oct. 2022, https://www.unglobalpulse.org/.
Churchill, Owen. “G7 Pledges to Counter 'State-Driven Censorship' and Help Protect Journalists.” South China Morning Post, 22 June 2022, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/3182726/g7-pledges-counter-state-driven-censorship-and-help-protect-journalists.
“European Union, Archived by Publications Office of the European Union.” Capture Calendar | European Union, Archived by Publications Office of the European Union | Archive-It Wayback Machine, 2016, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/final-report-high-level-expert-group-fake-news-and-online-disinformation.
Guterres, Antonio. “Secretary-General's Roadmap for Digital Cooperation.” United Nations, United Nations, 2020, https://www.un.org/en/content/digital-cooperation-roadmap/.
Posseti, julie, and Alice Matheus. “A Short Guide to the History of ’Fake News’ and Disinformation.” ICFJ, ICFJ, 2018, https://www.icfj.org/sites/default/files/2018-07/A%20Short%20Guide%20to%20History%20of%20Fake%20News%20and%20Disinformation_ICFJ%20Final.pdf.
“UNESCO Media and Information Literacy Alliance.” UNESCO.org, UNESCO, 1 Jan. 2020, https://www.unesco.org/en/media-information-literacy/alliance.
“The World Press Freedom Index.” Reporters without Borders, RSF, 2023, https://rsf.org/en/index.
Chair: Robin Gripon
Introduction
State-backed disinformation campaigns and censorship in media are complex issues that have significant implications in the realm of information security and digital communication. Disinformation, defined as the deliberate dissemination of false or misleading information, can be spread through various mediums including the Internet, social media platforms, and messaging apps. These campaigns can be orchestrated by state actors to manipulate public opinion, influence elections, and interfere in the internal affairs of other countries.
Censorship in media, on the other hand, refers to the suppression or manipulation of information by state or non-state actors. This can take the form of blocking websites, shutting down news outlets, and arresting journalists. These practices have commonly been used by state actors to combat the flow of information that may harm them. The use of censorship can have a significant impact on the free flow of information and can be employed as a tool for the control and suppression of dissent.
These issues can have real-world consequences such as undermining the democratic process, eroding trust in institutions, and spreading misinformation. In recent years, state-backed disinformation campaigns have been observed in various political contexts such as elections and international conflicts. Additionally, censorship in media has been observed in countries with authoritarian governments where the suppression of free speech and the press is used to maintain control.
Both disinformation campaigns and censorship in media have significant implications for information security, digital communication, and human rights. Additionally, there is a need for international collaboration and the development of robust legal frameworks to address these issues.
Definition of Key Terms
Disinformation: The UN has defined disinformation as "deliberately false or misleading information that is spread with the intent to deceive and mislead audiences, either for the purposes of causing harm or for political, personal or financial gain."
Misinformation: The UN has defined Misinformation as "unintentionally false or misleading information that is spread without the intent to deceive or mislead audiences."
Censorship: the suppression or prohibition of any parts of books, films, news, etc. that are considered obscene, politically unacceptable, or a threat to security.
Media freedom: In accordance with the UN, it has recognized the importance of media freedom as a fundamental human right and has called for the protection of journalists and their ability to report freely and without fear of retaliation.
Media Control: the manipulation or regulation of the media by a government or other powerful entity in order to shape public opinion or prevent the dissemination of certain information.
Propaganda :the spreading of information or ideas to promote a particular cause or ideology, often in a misleading or biased manner.
Background Information
Current Situation of disinformation campaigns and censorship in the G7 countries
Disinformation campaigns and censorship have become increasingly common in the G7 countries due to the ease of spreading information through social media platforms and the internet. These tactics are often used by governments or other actors to manipulate public opinion, undermine trust in institutions, and sow discord. For example, some countries have been accused of using bots and fake social media accounts to spread false narratives and influence political outcomes in other countries. In response to these challenges, the G7 members have taken steps to combat disinformation and promote freedom in media. At the 2021 summit, leaders agreed to work together to support independent media, protect journalists, and counter "state-driven censorship." This includes supporting organizations that promote media literacy and fact-checking, investing in technology to detect and counter disinformation, and collaborating with social media companies to combat harmful content. However, addressing the problem of disinformation and censorship remains a complex issue that requires a delicate balance between protecting free speech and preventing the spread of harmful content. Some critics argue that efforts to combat disinformation could be used to stifle legitimate speech or limit the ability of journalists to report on controversial topics. Others argue that more needs to be done to hold social media companies accountable for the content that is shared on their platforms. Moreover, journalists and media workers continue to face threats and harassment, with many facing physical violence, arrest, or imprisonment for their reporting. This emphasizes the need for continued efforts to protect the freedom of press and ensure that journalists can report on important issues without fear of retaliation.
However, the G7 members may have made important commitments to address disinformation and censorship, yet there is still much work to be done to protect free speech and promote media freedom. This requires ongoing collaboration, investment, and innovation to address these challenges and ensure that journalists and media workers can operate freely and safely in a rapid altering information landscape.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
The 2022 World Press Freedom IndexWith the use of the WPFI created by Reporters Without Borders, it is possible to track the ranks of 180 countries and territories around the world by their perceived levels of censorship and disinformation. The results are given on a scale of 0 (highly censored) to 100 (highly free). Each country’s score is a combination of 2 data sources, drawn from a quantitative tally of abuses and an analysis of the situation. These data sources are collected through surveys of specialists and relatable institutions.
[85 - 100 points] good (green)
[70 - 85 points] satisfactory (yellow)
[55 - 70 points] problematic (light orange)
[40 - 55 points] difficult (dark orange)
[0 - 40 points] very serious (dark red)
The 10 lowest-scoring countries are
10. Syria (28.94) 5. Myanmar (25.03)
9. Iraq (28.59) 4. Turkmenistan (25.01)
8. Cuba (27.32) 3. Iran (23.22)
7. Vietnam (26.11) 2. Eritrea (19.62)
6. China (25.17) 1.iNorth Korea (13.92)
Timeline and the Growth of Disinformation and Censorship
1914-1918 – World War 1: World War I, propaganda played a crucial part in the recruitment effort, appealing to nationalism and patriotism.
1917 – The Russian Revolution: Russian Revolution-era propaganda emerges; one strategy involved using the Russian rail network to target ‘large audiences’ with catchy slogans and punchy colors.
1933 – Rise of Nazism: Joseph Goebbels established the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda during the rise of Nazism. The ministry was utilized to spread Nazi messages of hatred and incite violence against Jews using various mediums, including theater and the press.
1939-1945 – World War II: According to Edward Herzstein's book, "The War that Hitler Won" (1978), the Nazi propaganda campaign was the most infamous propaganda campaign in history. The propaganda was so effective that it demonized and persecuted Jews, leading to atrocities committed with popular support. Regrettably, Holocaust denialism persists in the 21st century.
1955-1975 – The Vietnam War: Propaganda played a significant role during the Vietnam War. The US government engaged in a propaganda campaign known as the “Optimism Campaign” to bolster public support for the war effort. The campaign employed the “domino theory” to create fear in the American public and suppress opposition to the war. The theory posited that if one country came under communist influence or control, its neighboring countries would soon follow. The US briefings on the war, staged at the end of every day at a Saigon hotel, were referred to as the “Five O’clock Follies”. While the North Vietnamese government also engaged in propaganda, the US propaganda efforts were criticized for their dishonesty and the false optimism they conveyed to the American people.
1947-1991 – The Cold War: Both the United States and the Soviet Union utilized various propaganda tactics to win over the hearts and minds of people around the world. The US government used propaganda to promote capitalism and democracy, while demonizing communism and the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union engaged in a campaign to promote communism as the superior political and economic system. Disinformation was also used by both sides to mislead the public and manipulate international events. For instance, the US government propagated the false belief that the Soviet Union was behind the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, while the Soviet Union spread false information about US involvement in the AIDS epidemic.
2003-2011 – The Iraq War: Leading up to the 2003 US-led coalition invasion of Iraq, The New York Times published a series of articles that included an account of a camp where “biological weapons were produced” that was never independently verified. Journalist Judith Miller’s articles containing misinformation about weapons of mass destruction were among those that had the “greatest consequences for America”, and were cited by Bush administration officials as one of the reasons for the war with Iraq. It has been argued that The New York Times presented the notion of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction as fact, and this episode became known as ‘Weapons of Mass Distraction’. Additionally, Saddam Hussein’s Information Minister during the war, Muhammed Saeed al-Sahhaf, employed propaganda tactics that were so outrageous that he was treated like a parody and became known as ‘Comical Ali’ or ‘Baghdad Bob’ by Western media.
2011 – Syrian Civil War: An information war was fought alongside the armed hostilities, with both sides using social media and other digital channels to spread misinformation in an attempt to discredit their adversaries. The resulting "information chaos" was described by a spokesperson for the International Committee of the Red Cross in Syria. In response to an Amnesty International report in 2017 that accused his government of a "calculated campaign of extrajudicial execution" in a Syrian prison, President Bashar Assad claimed that "we are living in a fake news era." He also dismissed reports of a chemical attack that killed 89 people in the same year as "100 percent fabrications," although forensic reporting by The New York Times fact-checked and refuted his claim.
2016 - US Elections: During the 2016 US presidential election, there was significant misinformation and disinformation spread through social media and other digital channels, largely attributed to Russian interference. This included the creation of fake social media accounts, spreading false stories, and hacking into email accounts. The goal was to sow discord, create confusion, and influence the election outcome in favor of then-candidate Donald Trump. The misinformation campaign targeted both candidates, but particularly Hillary Clinton, with false stories about her health and involvement in scandals. A particular story involved PizzaGate, a conspiracy theory that falsely claimed a child sex ring was being run out of a Washington, D.C. pizza restaurant with links to the Democratic Party, gained traction and led to a man firing a rifle inside a pizza restaurant in December 2016.
2016 - Brexit: The Brexit vote was plagued by misinformation and disinformation. False claims were made about the amount of money the UK paid to the European Union, as well as about the potential benefits and drawbacks of leaving the EU. Misleading and inaccurate stories were spread on social media, including claims that the EU was responsible for the UK's immigration problems and that leaving the EU would result in a large increase in funding for the National Health Service (NHS). In addition, there were allegations of foreign interference in the Brexit vote, with concerns raised about the role of Russian-linked social media accounts in spreading disinformation.
2016 - Philippines: After the 2016 Philippine election, Rappler.com utilized investigative journalism techniques to combat State-backed disinformation campaigns. The website employed big data analysis, fact-checking, and the exposure of deceitful social media content to uncover 'sock-puppet' networks. Despite their efforts, CEO and Editor-in-Chief Maria Ressa and many of her colleagues have been subject to relentless online harassment, which has been attributed to the State.
2016 - Facebook announces it will flag “Fake News”: Initially, Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg denied accusations of facilitating the spread of disinformation during the US election. However, after facing criticism, the company announced that it would collaborate with fact-checkers to combat 'fake news' on the site, and allow users to report hoaxes and flag disputed stories. Later, Facebook withdrew news from its 'newsfeed' after experiments indicated that its adjustments could increase the amplification of 'fake news.'
2016 - Colombian Hacker reveals he interfered with Latin American elections: Columbian Hacker Andres Sepulveda revealed to Newsweek that he had interfered with presidential elections in several Latin American countries from 2006 to 2014. Sepulveda claimed that he had led a team of hackers to steal campaign strategies, manipulate social media, and installed spyware in opposition offices to disrupt and influence the outcome of the election. He specifically mentioned the 2012 Mexican presidential election, where his team created false waves of enthusiasm for certain candidates. Sepuvelda was sentenced to 10 years in Colombian prison for hacking related charges in 2014.
2016 - US President Donald Trump popularizes the phrase “Fake News”: The president accused his journalistic critics of spreading false information, starting with CNN. This term was later used by other world leaders to attack journalists and news organizations, spreading its use globally as a tool for discrediting media.
2017 - National Elections in France and Germany: During the French elections, an Oxford University study found that up to a quarter of the political stories shared on Twitter in France were based on misinformation. To counteract this, 37 news organizations and technology partners launched CrossCheck, a collaborative initiative to verify and debunk fake news stories leading up to the election. Meanwhile, the German election campaign remained largely unaffected by fake news, with the German parliament passing a law in June 2017 that imposed fines of more than $50 million on social media companies that fail to remove illegal content promptly.
2018 - Indictment of the 2016 US elections: The indictment of individuals who influenced the 2016 US election using disinformation was a significant moment in American political history. The indictment, which was brought by the Department of Justice, accused several individuals of participating in a coordinated effort to interfere in the election through the use of social media platforms and other digital means. The individuals were alleged to have created and disseminated false information, divisive content, and propaganda in an attempt to sway public opinion and influence the outcome of the election. This indictment highlighted the growing concern over the use of disinformation in modern politics and the need for greater awareness and regulation of online content. The investigation into the influence of disinformation in the 2016 election continues to have far-reaching consequences and serves as a stark reminder of the importance of protecting the integrity of democratic elections.
2018 - European Union Report on “Fake News”: In the latter part of 2017, the European Union established an esteemed group of experts to investigate the problem of 'fake news' and online disinformation. The group eventually released a report in early 2018, which proposed several remedies for the issue at hand. However, the report refrained from suggesting state regulation as a possible solution. The report's recommendations included the promotion of transparency in online news and its distribution, an increase in media and information literacy to counter disinformation, the provision of tools to empower users and journalists to confront disinformation and promote a constructive relationship with rapidly-evolving information technologies, measures to protect the diversity and longevity of the European news media ecosystem, and the continuation of research efforts.
2020-2023 Covid-19 effect on Disinformation: The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a significant rise in the spread of disinformation and misinformation. According to a study by the Reuters Institute, false or misleading information about COVID-19 was present in 40 out of 225 fact-checks conducted between January and April 2020. Social media platforms have played a significant role in amplifying the spread of COVID-19 misinformation and disinformation. A study by the University of Oxford found that Facebook and Twitter were the most commonly used platforms for spreading COVID-19-related misinformation.The spread of COVID-19 misinformation and disinformation has had real-world consequences. A study published in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene found that exposure to COVID-19 misinformation was associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in behaviors that increase the risk of infection, such as not wearing a mask or avoiding social distancing. In addition, false information about COVID-19 has led some people to refuse to follow public health guidelines or get vaccinated, contributing to increased illness and death. A study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that counties with lower vaccination rates had higher COVID-19 incidence and mortality rates.
Relevant UN Treaties and Resolutions
Resolution 76/227: Countering disinformation for the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms UN Resolution 76/227 aims to address the negative impact of disinformation on human rights and fundamental freedoms. The resolution recognizes the importance of freedom of expression and access to information, while emphasizing the need for accurate and reliable information. It calls on states to develop and implement effective measures to counter disinformation, including through media literacy, independent journalism, and fact-checking mechanisms. The resolution also calls for international cooperation in countering disinformation and encourages the UN and other organizations to work together to promote the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the digital age.
General Assembly Resolution A/C.3/74/L.45/Rev.1: The safety of journalists and the issue of impunity The UN General Assembly resolution from the Seventy-fourth session on "The safety of journalists and the issue of impunity" recognizes the importance of ensuring the safety of journalists, and the need to protect them from violence, threats, and attacks. The resolution also emphasizes the need to end impunity for those who commit crimes against journalists and media workers. It calls on member states to investigate and prosecute all cases of violence against journalists, and to provide adequate protection for them. Additionally, the resolution encourages member states to take steps to promote media freedom, ensure access to information, and support the independence of media institutions. Overall, this resolution aims to strengthen the protection of journalists and safeguard their fundamental role in promoting transparency, accountability, and democracy.
GA Forty-Fourth session Resolution: Freedom of opinion and expressionThe United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution on "Freedom of Opinion and Expression" during its forty-fourth session. The resolution emphasized the importance of freedom of expression and the right to hold opinions without interference, which are fundamental human rights enshrined in international law. The resolution also called on all governments to ensure that these rights are respected, protected, and fulfilled, regardless of the medium used to express them. The resolution recognized the role of the media in promoting these rights and called on states to create a conducive environment for the media to operate freely and safely. The resolution also recognized the need to combat hate speech and incitement to violence, while respecting the principles of non-discrimination and free speech. Overall, the resolution emphasized the vital importance of freedom of opinion and expression in promoting democracy, human rights, and social progress.
Possible Solutions
Required DisclaimersTo address the issue of disinformation, one solution could involve mandating disclaimers to be attached to content shared on online platforms, such as social media. These disclaimers would inform readers that the content they are viewing has not been verified for accuracy and may contain false or misleading information.
Platform Liability Another possible solution could involve holding online platforms accountable for the dissemination of disinformation. This could include making platforms responsible for content that is found to be false or misleading and requiring them to take proactive measures to identify and remove such content.
Regulatory Bodies To combat disinformation and censorship, the establishment of regulatory bodies may be necessary. These bodies could be tasked with investigating reports of disinformation and taking appropriate action against those found to be engaging in such activities.
Transparency RequirementsOnline platforms could be required to be more transparent about their content moderation policies and decision-making processes. This could include disclosing the specific criteria used to identify and remove content that is found to be false or misleading.
Educational ProgramsEducational programs could be developed to teach individuals how to identify and avoid disinformation. These programs could be aimed at schools, universities, and other educational institutions, as well as the general public, and could equip individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary to evaluate the accuracy of information they encounter online.
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